Denise Johnston, "A Developmental Approach to Work with Children of Prisoners: Mother-Child Reunification"
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The Empirical Basis for the Center's Work

The Center has served more than 25,000 families over the past 21 years. Our practice experience is consistent with the findings of most empirical research on these children.

Children of prisoners are typically born to parents with histories of traumatic experiences in childhood, as well as limited education and employment histories, substance abuse and dependency, and mental health problems.[2] As a group, children of incarcerated parents are exposed to more developmental insults than other children:

• In the prenatal period, children of women prisoners may experience high levels of stress and may be exposed to drugs/alcohol.[3]

Derek, Sean, Tiana, Allonya and all of Dominique's children were exposed to drugs and/or alcohol in utero. Bella, Allonya and five of Dominique's children were born while their parents were in jail or prison. The mothers of all these children experienced violence as a witness or victim during each of their pregnancies.

• Throughout infancy and childhood, children of incarcerated parents endure multiple parent-child separations, face repeated disruptions in care and multiple changes of caregiver, and typically live apart from at least some siblings.[4]

Tiana and her mother were separated a few weeks after Tiana was born, as Alyssa pursued gang activities. Five months later, Alyssa returned and co-parented Tiana for a year. Tiana was 18 months old when Alyssa first went to jail. When Tiana was 3, her mother briefly returned to their home and then was re-arrested and sent to prison.

Sean and Derek lived with their father after their parents separated. Following several months of custody hearings, they were placed with their mother, Jasmine. Two years later, Jasmine was arrested for drunk driving and the boys went to live with their maternal grandmother for 5 months while Jasmine was in jail. When Sean was 9 and Derek was 6, Jasmine was arrested and sent to prison. One year later, the boys were separated and they no longer live together.

None of Dominique's children have lived with her continuously. Dominique's oldest son has been separated from her for 10 years, while the 2-month old twins have been separated from her since birth. As an adult, Dominique has been incarcerated for a total of 15 months; most of the time she was separated from her children, living on her own, and involved with drugs and petty crime.

• Children of incarcerated parents are more likely than other children to be insecurely attached to their parents and caregivers, and they often demonstrate the consequences of insecure attachment, including difficulties in family and peer relationships.[5]

Bella is confused. Since she was born, she has spent days at her grandmother's house with her 6-year-old uncle and two preschool cousins, and nights at her aunt's house. She has called both her grandmother and her aunt "Mama," like her uncle and cousins do. Until recently, she referred to her mother as "Natalia." She is the most difficult to soothe and most aggressive of the children in her grandmother's care, often pushing and hitting the others when there is a conflict.

• The families of prisoners' children are often unable to provide adequate emotional and material support for child development, and are typically unable to protect children. As a result, children of prisoners' have typically had multiple traumatic experiences.[6]

Bella and Jaden have experienced medical trauma. Sean, Derek, Tiana, Allonya and all of Dominique's older children witnessed violence in their homes. Sean and Dominique's older children witnessed or participated in violence in the community. Derek, Tiana and Allonya have experienced the death of a parent and/or sibling. Tiana, Allonya and three of Dominique's children have been neglected and/or experienced physical or sexual abuse by their caregivers. Sean, Tiana and two of Dominique's children have witnessed parental arrest.

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